Tanvir's Blog

July 26, 2013

Desire Under the Elms as a Psychological Play

Preamble

Nobel Laureate Eugene O’Neill’s plays are influenced by psychoanalytical theories of the 19^th century and they boldly disrobe people’s civilized appearance and probe their inner psyches. His well-admired play Desire Under the Elms (1925) alludes to the ancient Greek legends about Oedipus and Phaedra and the modern Freudian theory known as the Oedipus complex and adopts mid-nineteenth century New England farm life as the setting for a tragic tale about adultery, incest, and infanticide. The play penetrates deep inside the inner states of its dramatis personae to dissect the motives and nature of human beings.

Desire Under the Elms as a Psychological Play

From a careful reading we can comprehend that the inner workings of all the major characters such as, Cabot, Eben and Abbie reveal different sorts of human nature. A great sequence of psychological realism pervades the play through some instances like the fierce hatred of Cabot and Eben, Eben’s desire for revenge upon Cabot, Eben’s Oedipal instincts, Abbie’s motives in marrying old Cabot and having a son, etc. Let us see in detail how aptly the playwright portrays various psychological implications in this play:

Simeon’s and Peter’s Revulsion for Their Father

At the onset we can observe the distant relationship Cabot had with his two sons from his first marriage, namely Simeon and Peter. Here we can certainly trace a mental conflict between the father and his sons. Both the sons had a notion that their father lacked any filial or human emotions and thus hated them. They were so obsessed with this thought that they wished his death. Both the brothers were annoyed with their father as he constantly imposed heavy farm tasks on them. In the backdrop of this desire they had a plan to escape from the farm and go to California where they think they can get rich in a relatively short time.

Eben’s Hatred for Cabot and his Step-brothers

Eben blindly believed that Cabot gradually killed his mother by overworking her for the farm. This view made him sternly vindictive towards his father. Again, he also held his step-brothers responsible for his mother’s death as they did nothing to save her from the clutches of Cabot’s torture. Eben also believed that the farm actually belonged to his mother and Cabot dishonestly grabbed it from her. Eben maintained that in this way Cabot not only deceived his mother but also deprived him of the lawful clamant of the farm. When his father returned home with his third wife, Eben became more revengeful to his father as he thought that she might eventually make a claim to the farm.

Eben’s Mother Fixation

Eben’s excessive mother fixation is revealed in a number of times. This is, because, even after his mother’s death Eben believed that he could feel her presence beside the stove, which he told to his step-brothers. He told that she cannot rest peacefully in her grave as she feels sorry to see that her son has to perform the same hard duties which had been performed by her previously. Eben tried to reinforce the idea of his dead mother’s spirit when Abbie told him that she felt some invisible presence in the parlour. In this way Eben blindly thought that his dead mother is spurring him to accept amorous advances of Abbie to take revenge upon his father.

Eben’s Oedipal Instincts

In many ways, Eben possesses the Freudian instinct of Oedipus Complex. This is first revealed when Eben formed a sexual relationship with a prostitute named Minnie, who was once a mistress to his father. Afterwards we see that he forms an incestuous relationship with his step-mother only to have a revenge on his father.

Subconscious Yearning of Eben and Abbie

The subconscious mind of the pair of lovers - Abbie and Eben was painstakingly analyzed in Act-II, Scene-II. In this scene we see that the couple had so strong yearning for each other that they could feel that urge even though they were in separate rooms. They seem to see each other through the wall. Ultimately, Abbie gets up and listens to the wall; Eben believed that he could see every move she is making.

Abbie’s Inner Desires

Abbies desires play an important role in the development of plot construction of the play. Abbie decided to marry Cabot since she was looking for a home for herself and for security. Her motive was to secure the sole ownership of the farm. When she found Eben as a possible heir of the farm, she decided to have a son for herself. She conspired to have a child by Eben and make it look like that Cabot is the father. During materialization of her plot, she truly falls in love with Eben and abandons her plan to grab the farm. But when Eben misunderstood her motive, she decided to murder her child to prove the fact that nothing can come in between their love.

Cabot’s Inner Workings

Cabot is an essentially religious man with an unusual obsession with work. He was a hard-worker so he engaged his wives and sons in heavy farm jobs. Unfortunately, they never understood him and as such he felt lonely even when they were around him. From a sense of dissatisfaction, he longed to be a parent in his old age. Cabot used to feel that some mysterious things were happening in the corners of his house. The fear from his subconscious mind signifies that in reality something unnatural is happening in the house.

Conclusion

Desire Under the Elms is an extensive exploration of motives underlying human behaviour. Although it adopts Greek mythical background for its plot construction, the play becomes a modern piece of art for its psychological side. Here, the playwright deals with the psychological part incredibly well by analyzing each characters mind acutely.

June 29, 2013

Sylvia Plath Quick Facts

Sylvia Plath

A 20th Century American poet, novelist and editor

Full Name: Sylvia Plath

Pen name: Victoria Lucas

Birth: October 27, 1932

Death: February 11, 1963

Place of Birth: Boston, Massachusetts

Place of Death: London, England

Cause of death: Suicide

Buried at: St. Thomas' Churchyard, Heptonstall, West Yorkshire, England

Father: Otto Plath (1885–1940)

Mother: Aurelia Schober Plath (1906–1994)

Siblings: One younger brother: Warren Plath (1935– ?)

Marriage: June 16, 1956

Spouse: Ted Hughes (1930 –1998)

Children: One daughter: Frieda Hughes (1960–), and one son: Nicholas Hughes (1962–2009)

Education: Smith College, Cambridge University

Known for: her works which are marked for their profoundly concentrated personal imagery

Criticised for: her troubled life, reflected through her confessional style, which she implemented in her semi-autobiographical writings

Influences: William Blake (1757–1827), James Joyce (1882–1941), Virginia Woolf (1882–1941), J. D. Salinger (1919–2010), William Butler Yeats (1865–1939)

Influenced: Elizabeth Wurtzel (1967), K.J. Stevens (1973), Gary Forrester (1946), Antonella Gambotto-Burke (1965)

Quote:

“Death must be so beautiful. To lie in the soft brown earth, with the grasses waving above one's head, and listen to silence. To have no yesterday, and no to-morrow. To forget time, to forgive life, to be at peace."
Sylvia Plath, "The Bell Jar"

Major Themes:

Self-destruction
Death
Alienation
Motherhood
Love and Sex
Patriarchy
Nature
Victimization

Notable Works:

Poetry

The Colossus (1960)
Ariel (1965)
Crossing the Water (1971)
Winter Trees (1972)
The Collected Poems (1981)

Prose

The Bell Jar (1963)
Letters Home (1975, to and edited by her mother)
Johnny Panic and the Bible of Dreams (1977)
The Journals of Sylvia Plath (1982)
The Magic Mirror (1989, Plath's Smith College senior thesis)
The Unabridged Journals of Sylvia Plath (2000, edited by Karen V. Kukil)

Books for Young Readers

The Bed Book (1976)
The It-Doesn't-Matter-Suit (1996)
Collected Children's Stories (UK, 2001)
Mrs. Cherry's Kitchen (2001)

Did You Know?

Her father died as a result of complications from diabeteson November 5, 1940, a week and a half after Plath's eighth birthday

She made her first suicide attempt by taking sleeping peels when she was around 20 years old

She made her second suicide attempt at the age of 30 by gassing herself at her flat in London, which took away her life

Prior to killing herself, Plath ascertained about the safety of her children and she also left food and drinks for them

Many Plath supporters blame Hughes' adultery with Assia Wevill as the cause of Plath's pathetic demise

Like Plath, Hughes’ company in adultery Assia Wevill also eventually committed suicide by using a gas oven

The headstone of her tomb bears the name “Sylvia Plath Hughes”

The name 'Hughes' in the headstone now appears in bronze lettering to prevent it from being removed (as many Plath supports chiselled the part several times in the past)

Her keen interest in writing led Plath to keep a journal from the age of 11 and she published her poems in regional magazines and newspapers

In 1982, Plath became the first individual to win a posthumous Pulitzer Prize

In early 1956, Plath met the English poet Ted Hughes at a party in Cambridge, UK and fell in love at first sight and got married four months later

Sylvia Plath and Ted Hughes had an unstable marital life

Sylvia Plath’s first poetry collection The Colossus was published in 1960 in England

Ted Hughes edited much of Plath’s major works after her death, including the most notable Ariel (1965)

Plath’s only novel The Bell Jar (1963) was published under the pseudonym Victoria Lucas

The true story of Sylvia Plath was the basis for the British biographical drama film Sylvia (2003)

Except Colossus most of her major works were published posthumously

In her poem Pursuit Plath used a panther to describe Ted Hughes

Her elegiac poem Daddy is written about her father

Her daughter Frieda Hughes is a poet and painter

Although Sylvia Plath left this world prematurely, she is still a much studied poet these days

References

“Sylvia Plath”. Poets.org. 2013. Academy of American Poets. 25 June 2013
< http://www.poets.org/poet.php/prmPID/11>.

“Sylvia Plath”. Biography. 2013. A+E Television Networks, LLC. 25 June 2013
< http://www.biography.com/people/sylvia-plath-9442550>.

June 11, 2013

The Theme of Death in Dickinson's Poetry

Introduction

Emily Dickinson has been the centre of curiosity for a number of researchers due to her insuppressible obsession with death. Even though death has been the subject of scrutiny for numerous literary artists and philosophers for centuries, Dickinson audaciously secluded herself from others by conceiving it in a rather unique way. She portrayed death as a fascinating, fantastic and cryptic phenomenon rather than representing it in its traditional mundane outlook. In fact, she was attached with death too such an extent that one-fourth of her poetry revolves around the theme of death.

Background

Emily Dickinson encountered many tragic deaths of friends close to her which eventually led her to live a reclusive and sorrowful life. This sense of doom significantly engendered her interest in writing poetry of death. In fact, Dickinson lived in a time when medical science was less developed so people died from simple symptoms. Therefore, she again and again confronted with the cycle of human existence, from birth to death and birth again. Dickinson endeavoured to capture this tragedy of human life through her poetry.

Types of Death

Dickinson’s attitude towards death differs from poem to poem. A careful reading of her poetry reveals that she treated death from every possible perspective. For example, she commonly portrayed death as a welcome relief from life‘s tensions; as a force which heightens one‘s satisfaction with life; as an assassin; as a lover gently conveying one to hidden pleasures; as a physical corruptor; as a cynical caller who poses beneath a cordial exterior; as an ever free creature in nature; and lastly as a solemn guide leading one to the threshold of immortality. Thus, keeping the context of the current discussion in mind we can roughly categorize her death-specific poems in the following vein:

Poems dealing with death and immortality.
Poems dealing with the physical aspects of death.
Poems which personify death.
Poems with the elegiac note.

Now let us see in detail how Dickinson treated death in different categories:

CATEGORY -1

Poems in this category primarily reflects Dickinson’s spiritual views on death. In her world, she positioned death second only to god. Dickinson’s solitary life provided her much incentive to attain mystical experience. The centre of her mystical concept is deathlessness of death. She believed that all things in this world will one day perish but death alone will remain forever. Physical death is not the end rather it is the beginning of a perpetual life.

Because I could not stop for Death (712)

Because I could not stop for Death –
He kindly stopped for me –
The Carriage held but just Ourselves –
And Immortality.

We slowly drove – He knew no haste
And I had put away
My labor and my leisure too,
For His Civility –

We passed the School, where Children strove
At Recess – in the Ring –
We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain –
We passed the Setting Sun –

Or rather – He passed us –
The Dews drew quivering and chill –
For only Gossamer, my Gown –
My Tippet – only Tulle –

We paused before a House that seemed
A Swelling of the Ground –
The Roof was scarcely visible –
The Cornice – in the Ground –

Since then – 'tis Centuries – and yet
Feels shorter than the Day
I first surmised the Horses' Heads
Were toward Eternity –

A Death blow is a Life blow to Some(816)

A Death blow is a Life blow to Some
Who till they died, did not alive become —
Who had they lived, had died but when
They died, Vitality begun.
Drowning is not so pitiful (1718)
Drowning is not so pitiful
As the attempt to rise
Three times, 'tis said, a sinking man
Comes up to face the skies,
And then declines forever
To that abhorred abode,
Where hope and he part company —
For he is grasped of God.
The Maker's cordial visage,
However good to see,
Is shunned, we must admit it,
Like an adversity.

If I should die (27)

If I should die,
And you should live,
And time should gurgle on,
And morn should beam,
And noon should burn,
As it has usual done;
If birds should build as early,
And bees as bustling go, --
One might depart at option
From enterprise below!
'T is sweet to know that stocks will stand
When we with daisies lie,
That commerce will continue,
And trades as briskly fly.
It makes the parting tranquil
And keeps the soul serene,
That gentlemen so sprightly
Conduct the pleasing scene!

CATEGORY-2

This category is concerned with the physical aspects of death. In such poems Dickinson primarily fixed her attention on the scenes of dying, the deceased person, and the effects of death as seen in burials, funerals, and household activities. She observed such aspects of death to comprehend how death may like physically.

How many times these low feet staggered - (187)

How many times these low feet staggered —
Only the soldered mouth can tell —
Try — can you stir the awful rivet —
Try — can you lift the hasps of steel!

Stroke the cool forehead — hot so often —
Lift — if you care — the listless hair —
Handle the adamantine fingers
Never a thimble — more — shall wear —

Buzz the dull flies — on the chamber window —
Brave — shines the sun through the freckled pane —
Fearless — the cobweb swings from the ceiling —
Indolent Housewife — in Daisies — lain!

The last Night that She lived (1100)

THE last night that she lived,
It was a common night,
Except the dying; this to us
Made nature different.

We noticed smallest things, —
Things overlooked before,
By this great light upon our minds
Italicized, as 't were.

That others could exist
While she must finish quite,
A jealousy for her arose
So nearly infinite.

We waited while she passed;
It was a narrow time,
Too jostled were our souls to speak,
At length the notice came.
She mentioned, and forgot;
Then lightly as a reed
Bent to the water, shivered scarce,
Consented, and was dead.

And we, we placed the hair,
And drew the head erect;
And then an awful leisure was,
Our faith to regulate.

I heard a Fly buzz - when I died - (591)

I heard a Fly buzz – when I died –
The Stillness in the Room
Was like the Stillness in the Air –
Between the Heaves of Storm –

The Eyes around – had wrung them dry –
And Breaths were gathering firm
For the last Onset – when the King
Be witnessed – in the Room –

I willed my Keepsakes – Signed away
What portion of me be
Assignable – and then it was
There interposed a Fly –

With Blue – uncertain – stumbling Buzz –
Between the light – and me –
And then the Windows failed – and then
I could not see to see –

I felt a Funeral, in my Brain, (340)

I felt a Funeral, in my Brain,
And Mourners to and fro
Kept treading - treading - till it seemed
That Sense was breaking through -

And when they all were seated,
A Service, like a Drum -
Kept beating - beating - till I thought
My mind was going numb -

And then I heard them lift a Box
And creak across my Soul
With those same Boots of Lead, again,
Then Space - began to toll,

As all the Heavens were a Bell,
And Being, but an Ear,
And I, and Silence, some strange Race,
Wrecked, solitary, here -

And then a Plank in Reason, broke,
And I dropped down, and down -
And hit a World, at every plunge,
And Finished knowing - then –

The Bustle in a House (1108)

The Bustle in a House
The Morning after Death
Is solemnest of industries
Enacted opon Earth –

The Sweeping up the Heart
And putting Love away
We shall not want to use again
Until Eternity –

Not any higher stands the Grave (1256)

Not any higher stands the Grave
For Heroes than for Men —
Not any nearer for the Child
Than numb Three Score and Ten —

This latest Leisure equal lulls
The Beggar and his Queen
Propitiate this Democrat
A Summer's Afternoon —

CATEGORY-3

This category consists of Dickinson’s most ingenious ideas about death, which is namely personification of death. Dickinson believed that if she visualizes death as a human then she will be able to come closer to death to understand its purpose. Therefore, she opted to attribute human qualities to death. Such a technique enabled her to express the abstract concept of death in terms of the concrete.

Dust is the only Secret — (153)

Dust is the only Secret —
Death, the only One
You cannot find out all about
In his "native town."

Nobody know "his Father" —
Never was a Boy —
Hadn't any playmates,
Or "Early history" —

Industrious! Laconic!
Punctual! Sedate!
Bold as a Brigand!
Stiller than a Fleet!

Builds, like a Bird, too!
Christ robs the Nest —
Robin after Robin
Smuggled to Rest!

CATEGORY-4

This category comprises elegiac poems. These poems are generally written in a somber voice and they are profoundly sentimental in tone. These are mournful laments over some real, or in many cases, imaginary individuals.

Mama never forgets her birds (164)

Mama never forgets her birds,
Though in another tree —
She looks down just as often
And just as tenderly
As when her little mortal nest
With cunning care she wove —
If either of her "sparrows fall,"
She "notices," above.

The Theme of Death in Dickinson's Poetry

References

Antony, Omana and Suchi Dewan .“Emily Dickinson’s Perspectives on Death:

An Interpretation of Dickinson’s Poems on Death”. Lapis Lazuli. 2013.

Lapis Lazuli. 9 June 2013

< http://pintersociety.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Omana-Antony13.pdf>.

“Inside The Mind Of Death”. Free-Essays-Free-Essays.com. 2013.

Free-Essays-Free-Essays.com. 9 June 2013

< http://www.free-essays-free-essays.com/dbase/3c/enq265.shtml>.

Abeijon, Brittany. “A Close Analysis of Major Themes in Emily Dickinson's Poetry”.

Yahoo Voices. 2013. Brittany Abeijon. 9 June 2013

< http://voices.yahoo.com/a-close-analysis-major-themes-emily-dickinsons-75243.html?cat=10>.

May 24, 2013

Romanticism

Romanticism is a major literary movement which emerged towards the end of the 18th century, the waning days of Neoclassicism. The Romantic Movement assumedly emerged in Germany, although the main source of inspiration came from the events and ideologies of the French Revolution. The Industrial Revolution, beginning in the same year, is presumed to be responsible for the growth of this movement. However, it is generally said that this epoch-making literary movement was initiated in 1798 by the publication of Lyrical Ballads, which was written by William Wordsworth in collaboration with his friend S.T. Coleridge. In essence, the romantic elements had been present in literature for centuries. The Elizabethan Age, for example, was essentially featured with romantic spirit. No matter who or which kindled Romanticism, the movement indisputably exerted a significant influence on the literature across the globe. The age is truly endowed with unique literary output. The movement ended in the 3rd decade of the 19th century when new literary movements like the Parnassians, Symbolism, Realism and Naturalism made ways.

Basic Premises

Romanticism ushered in as a reaction against Neoclassicism. Therefore, in Romanticism:

1.       imagination was praised over reason and intellect.
2.       emotions were given prominence over logic/rationality.
3.       intuition was given importance over science.
4.       rural and the natural settings found much attention than the urban life.
5.       subjective poetry was replaced by public impersonal poetry.

Major Characteristics

No romantic writer followed any specific rules or regulations and as such no precise characteristics could be proposed. However, the major characteristics of Romanticism are roughly as follows:

1. Rebellion and Revolution: The Romantic Movement was a revolt against all artificiality, it sought to alter the prevailing literary tradition to the following extant:

a) Individuality/Subjectivity: Pursuant to their philosophy the poet was seen as the creator of a piece of writing which reflected his individuality and inner mind. Such a view paved the way for subjective poems.

b) Simplicity of Expression/Spontaneity: The Romantics deviated from strict rules and regulations of the preceding era and concentrated on writing in simple language of the common people. Their theme was also relatively simple and modest.

c) Freedom of Thought and Expression: The Romantics gave special attention to emancipation of expression which helped them to unleash the creativity, imagination, feelings, emotion and passion without any obstruction.

2. Nationalism: The Romantics produced their works by inspiring from the folklore that was created by the masses or the common people. As they showed pofound interest in developing/rediscovering the folklore, culture of their own country, they developed a sense of Nationalism.

3. Idealization of Nature: Nature is a prevailing theme in Romantic literature. The Romantics were profoundly in love with the beauty of Nature. To them Nature was a impassioned and benign force which protects man. They viewed nature as the best place to take refuge from the complications of urban life. The Romantics combined it as a gateway to transcendental experience and truth.

4. Melancholy and Escapism: Generally a pessimistic tone pervades the Romantic literature as the Romantics were dissatisfied with their lives, time, and the overall condition of the humankind. The Romantics tried to escape into an imaginative world created by them to avoid the sordid realities of life.

6. Love for Medievalism/Focus on Exotic Locations: They often escaped into Strange and far-away places of the Middle Ages as they not only provided them an escape from the real world but also provided an opportunity to create a sense of remoteness or mysterious environment.

7. Love for the Supernatural or the Occult: The Romantics were greatly fascinated by the magic and mystery of the universe. They could feel the presence of concealed powers in nature. That is why in majority of Romantic literature we see the stories of ghost, magicians, goddesses, witchcraft, etc. The Romantic literature is as such mystical and foreign from everyday experiences of life.

Chief Representatives

The essence of Romanticism was first seen in France and Germany by the late 18^th century. Initially the inspiration came from two great thinkers:

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

French philosopher, social and political theorist, and musician. He was one of the most influential writers of the Age of Enlightenment. Rousseau’s concept of the individual freedom left a major influence on the development of the 19^th century Romanticism.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)

German poet, dramatist, novelist, and scientist. Goethe’s plays and novels reflect an insightful exploration of human individuality. His novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774; translated 1779) is deemed to be one of the great influential documents of Romanticism.

English Romanticism

From the above discussion it is clear that the English Romanticism received much of its inspiration from the writings of Rousseau andGoethe. However,it was formally launched in Britain by William Wordsworth (1770-1850)and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834).The duos published a joint volume of poetry, Lyrical Ballads (1798), which started Romanticism. It contained the first great works of the Romantic school. Wordsworth's “Preface” to the second edition (1800) of Lyrical Ballads, became the manifesto of the English Romantic movement in poetry.

William Wordsworth (1770-1850)

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834)

Other Followers

Lord Byron (1788 –1824)

English poet, mostly known for the influence of his poetry on the Romantic Movement although his writing style was somewhat classical. In his works he disregarded rationality and emphasized the imagination and the emotions. His major works include Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (1812-18) and Don Juan (1819-24).

P.B. Shelley (1792–1822)

English poet, considered by many to be among the greatest, and one of the most influential leaders of the Romantic Movement. His notable Romantic poems include To a Skylark (1820), To the West Wind (1819), and The Cloud (1820).

John Keats (1795–1821)

Major English poet, whose use of classical legend with rich poetic imagination captured the true spirit of Romanticism. His Romantic attitude best expressed in Ode to a Nightingale, Ode on a Grecian Urn, Ode on Melancholy and To Autumn.

Early Romantics

Thomas Gray (1716-1771)

Leading English poet in the mid-18^th Century. He is the precursor of the Romantic Movement. Gray is mostly remembered today for his poem An Elegy Written in a Country Church Yard.

William Collins (1721-1759)

Prominent 18^th century poet, who is regarded as one of the most important pre-Romantic English lyric poets. Although he followed the Neoclassical poetic forms, his themes were very much Romantic. His major works comprise, How Sleep the Brave, Ode to Evening, Ode to Simplicity, The Passions, and Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands of Scotland (1750).

William Blake (1757-1827)

English poet, painter, and engraver, considered by many to be one of the earliest and greatest figures of Romanticism. His apex works are Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794).

Robert Burns (1759-1796)

Scottish poet and writer of traditional Scottish folk songs, who is often labeled a pre-Romantic poet for his sensitivity to nature, his high valuation of feeling and emotion, his spontaneity, his fierce stance for freedom and against authority, his individualism, and his antiquarian interest in old songs and legends.

Transcendentalism

In America a similar type of movement began to flourish under a different label. It was known as Transcendentalism, which emerged from New England by incorporating new ideas in literature, religion, culture, and philosophy. The term was first used by the opponents of this school of thought. The movement began in the early 19^th Century as a protest against the increasing dehumanization and materialism engendered by the Industrial Revolution and the spiritual inadequacy of the established religious beliefs. The movement was much stimulated by the English and German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Herder and Schleiermacher, and the skepticism of Hume. However, the transcendental philosophy was systematically explored in Nature (1836), a book by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Its publication marked the beginning of this period. The movement ended in the late 19^th century by the advent of Anti-transcendentalism/Dark Romanticism.

Basic Premises:

1. An individual is the spiritual centre of the universe and in an individual can be found the clue to nature, history and, ultimately, the cosmos itself. It is not a rejection of the existence of God, but a preference to explain an individual and the world in terms of an individual.

2. The structure of the universe literally duplicates the structure of the individual self, all knowledge, therefore, begins with self-knowledge.

3. Transcendentalists accepted the neo-Platonic conception of nature as a living mystery, full of signs - nature is symbolic.

4. The belief that individual virtue and happiness depend upon self-realization - this depends upon the reconciliation of two universal psychological tendencies:

a) the expansive or self-transcending tendency: a desire to embrace the whole world, to know and become one with the world.

b) the contracting or self-asserting tendency: the desire to withdraw, remain unique and separate, an egotistical existence.

Major Characteristics

The Transcendentalists never considered themselves belonging to a particular school of thought. Although they agreed implicitly on some principles, they prided themselves on their lack of agreement. Therefore, the following are an inventory of rough concepts shared by many of them:

1. Nature is Akin to God:The Transcendentalists believed that Nature is like a teacher, whose lessons can bring men closer to God. Therefore, pursuant to their views Nature is equal to God.

2. God is Omnipresent: The proponents of Transcendentalism believed that God/Nature/Universe/Over-soul is present in everywhere and in everything. Therefore, they argued that man does not need to observe either a specific religion or visit the churches to find God. They only supported the direct relationship with God since all the established religions are formed by opportunist individuals.

3. Man is divine: The Transcendentalists believed that Nature is divine and as Man is the creature of Nature he is also divine.

4. Intuition: The Transcendentalists argued that as God exists in Man, he has the intuitive power to determine which is right and which is wrong. Man doesn't need any holy books to learn morality.

5. Self-Reliance: The Transcendentalists opined that as Man possesses the natural instincts to guide himself to do the right thing, he must not obey the artificial laws, customs, fashions, or values.

6. Emphasis on the Present: To the Transcendentalists the past is insignificant. They believed that knowledge comes from experience and man doesn’t necessarily acquire it from studying past or from the people who lived before him. Basically, people from the past also attained knowledge through experience, as a result people from present must also depend on experience rather than anybody or any entity from the past.

7. Idealism: Human beings are naturally good at their core. Again, it is society that corrupts them. Human beings left to their own devices are good.

8. Materialism is Evil: According to Transcendental beliefs the pursuit for material goods is worthless and harmful. Money is evil because it causes man to place artificial and false value on objects and people.

9. Optimism:The Transcendentalists emphasized on the essential goodness and purposefulness of life therefore, their outlook on life was vigorously optimistic.

Chief Representatives

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)

American Philosopher, Journalist, Poet, one of the central leaders of the school of transcendentalism. His Transcendental notes are apparent in Self-Reliance (1841), The American Scholar (1837), Friendship (1841) and Experience.

Henry David Thoreau (1817 –1862)

American writer, philosopher, and naturalist, considered to be among the best figures of the Transcendentalist movement. He is mostly noted for Walden; or, Life in the Woods (1854) and Civil Disobedience (1849).

Walt Whitman (1819 – 1892)

American poet, essayist and journalist. His best works are Franklin Evans (1842), Leaves of Grass (1855), Drum-Taps (1865), During the War, and Democratic Vistas (1871)

Amos Bronson Alcott (1799-1888)

American writer, philosopher, schoolteacher, the most brilliant and visionary of the Transcendentalists.

Margaret Fuller (1810-1850)

American social reformer, author, and critic. Her works include, Summer on the Lakes(1844), Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845).

Theodore Parker (1810-1860)

An American preacher, lecturer, writer, public intellectual, and religious and social reformer. His brilliant sermon A Discourse of the Transient and Permanent in Christianity (1841) is truly a Transcendentalist manifesto.

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April 29, 2013