Stream of Consciousness

Definition

Stream of Consciousness (often called interior monologue) is an immensely intricate modernist technique of narration. Hence no precise or acceptable definition of the method prevails up till now. However, in general sense, stream of consciousness is a mode of narration that attempts to reproduce the full and uninterrupted stream or flow of a character’s mental process in which thoughts, ideas, reactions, memories, and sense impressions may intermingle without coherent or logical transitions.

Discussion

Stream of consciousness is a narrative technique in non-dramatic fiction which is particularly preferred by the writers of psychological novels. By means of words the technique describes the continuous flow of thoughts in the minds of the characters. Therefore, Stream of consciousness technique features a trip from the outer world into the inner world of a character. It puts Over-emphasis on the latter since it is more important than the former.

Stream of consciousness presents the character’s thoughts and feelings in the way people actually think. In real life the flow of human thoughts occur in a non-linear manner without having any beginning or end. As a result, it lacks chronological or logical pattern, which ultimately results in fragmentary thoughts and sensory feelings. Since stream of consciousness follows this very disjointed or randomized sequence, the audience may face difficulty to comprehend the narrative. However, if executed masterfully, stream of consciousness can make the text really enjoyable.

Salient Features

The salient features of stream of consciousness are as follows:

• Description of the continuous flow of unspoken thoughts or perceptions of the character.
• The character's thoughts and feelings are depicted as overheard in the mind or addressed to oneself.
• Chiefly concerned with the subjective description of life.
• The flow of a character’s thoughts often appears without a coherent structure or cohesion.
• Use of informal and colloquial language.
• Abandonment of conventional rules of syntax and punctuation.
• Use of the cinematic device of montage, i.e., the shift of thoughts randomly from one thing to another.

Forms

Stream of consciousness technique has two major stylistic forms:

1. Narrated Stream of Consciousness: Also called indirect interior monologue or psycho-narration wherein the character’s thoughts are presented by a third person omniscient narrator who serves as selector, presenter, guide, and commentator. Narrated stream of consciousness renders the narrative report of the character's psychological states, i.e., the remote, preconscious state that exists before the mind organizes sensations. Consequently, the re-creation of a narrated stream of consciousness frequently lacks the unity, explicit cohesion, and selectivity of direct thought. It shifts from third person omniscient narration to interior monologue by using verbs of perception such as “he thought” to enter the character’s mind, thus providing some context for the character’s mental flow of description and commentary. For instance, Virginia Woolf uses indirect interior monologue in her novels Mrs. Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927).
2. Interior Monologue: Also called quoted stream of consciousness. The term interior monologue is often mistakenly used as a synonym for stream of consciousness. In essence, it is a type of stream of consciousness. It entails the presentation of consciousness in a seemingly transparent, uninterrupted way, from the first person point of view of a character, without guidance or commentary from a third person narrator. More specifically, in interior monologue the author seems not to exist and the interior self of the character is given directly. For example: James Joyce employs direct interior monologue in the final chapter of his groundbreaking novel Ulysses (1920).

Function

• Stream of consciousness technique enables the writer to portray the inner status of a character in an effective and convincing way. In this way the author takes the reader inside the mind of the character to follow his or her thought patterns.
• Stream of consciousness often presents rapid shifts in the character’s thought processes, such as memories, feelings, etc. by means of flashback and foreshadowing. That means the characters’ mind is shifted from one position to another seemingly discontinuous one so that the audience needs to draw an inference about their connection and also about the upcoming twists. In this way the author is able to retain the reader’s interest till the end of the text.
• Stream of consciousness technique sometimes contributes to the overall development of the plot.

Stream of Consciousness Vs. Interior Monologue

Although often used interchangeably, a number of distinctions could be made between stream of consciousness and interior monologue:

Sl. #	Stream of Consciousness	Interior Monologue
	First coined by William James in the thesis The Principles of Psychology in 1890.	First used in Les Lauriers sont coupés by Édouard Dujardin in 1887.
	Presentation of the flow of the character’s mind combining unorganized or irrational thoughts, feelings, memories and reactions.	The relatively rational and orderly compilation of thoughts and memories, wishes, and ideas that the character has reunited throughout the different events of his life.
	Manifests the inner workings of a character.	Attempts to dramatize a conflict using thoughts.
	Does not maintain formal syntax, vocabulary, or punctuation.	Does not violate formal syntax, vocabulary, or punctuation.
	Usually presented by third person narration.	Typically presented by first person narration.
	Is a separate mode of narration.	Is a form of stream of consciousness.

History

The term stream of consciousness has been transferred in literary context from the field of psychology. It was first used by the American philosopher and psychologist William James (1842 –1910) in his book The Principles of Psychology (1890) to describe the unbroken flow of thought and awareness of the waking mind. In Chapter XI he provided a phenomenological description of this sensation of consciousness:

“Consciousness, then, does not appear to itself chopped up in bits. Such words as 'chain' or 'train' do not describe it fitly as it presents itself in the first instance. It is nothing jointed; it flows. A 'river' or a 'stream' are the metaphors by which it is most naturally described. In talking of it hereafter, let us call it the stream of thought, of consciousness, or of subjective life.”

The Freudian theories of psychoanalytic findings exerted tremendous influence in modernist literature, no doubt. However, William James’s theory about the nature of consciousness had a much profound influence than that of Freud's. In 1918 the English novelist and critic May Sinclair (1863 –1946) first applied the term stream of consciousness, in a literary context, when discussing Dorothy Richardson's novels.

The technique was perhaps brought to its highest point of development in Ulysses (1922) and Finnegans Wake (1939) by the Irish novelist and poet James Joyce (1882 –1941). Other exponents of the form were American novelist William Faulkner (1897–1962) and British novelist Virginia Woolf (1882–1941). The British writer Dorothy Richardson 1873–1957) is considered by some actually to be the pioneer in use of the device. Her novel Pilgrimage (1911–1938), a 12-volume sequence, is an intense analysis of the development of a sensitive young woman and her responses to the world around her.

Although strongly associated with the 20^th century modernist movement, some earlier works also share similar technique. The earliest precursor of any literary work using this technique is possibly Ovid's (43 BC – AD 17/18) Metamorphoses (8 AD). Other works include Sir Thomas Browne's (1605–1682) discourse The Garden of Cyrus (1658), Laurence Sterne's (1713-1768) The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759), Edgar Allen Poe’s (1809-1849) “The Tell-Tale Heart” (1843), Édouard Dujardin's (1861 –1949) Les Lauriers sont coupés (1888), and Leo Tolstoy's (1828 -1910) Anna Karenina (1877). Moreover, some of the books by Henry James (1843 – 1916), the younger brother of William James also reflect this technique: What Maisie Knew (1897) and The Golden Bowl (1904). Last but not least TS Elliot's (1888 – 4 1965) "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" (1915) is also an early paradigm of stream of consciousnesses narrative technique.

References

 Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7th ed. USA: H & H, 1999

Griffith, Benjamin W. A Pocket Guide to Literature and Language Terms. New York: Barron's, 1976

Gupta, A.N. and Satis Gupta. A Dictionary of English Literature. 2nd ed. Bareilly: PBD, 1995

Harmon, William and Hugh Holman. 10^th ed. A Handbook to Literature. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006.

"Stream of Consciousness”. Literary Devices. 2016. Literary Devices. 2 December 2016

< http://literarydevices.net/stream-of-consciousness/>.

"Stream of Consciousness”. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2016. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2 December 2016

< https://global.britannica.com/art/stream-of-consciousness>.

"Stream of Consciousness”. New World Encyclopedia. 2016. NWE. 2 December 2016

< https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Stream_of_consciousness>.

"Stream of Consciousness”. Narrative Wiki. 2012. Narrative Wiki. 2 December 2016

< http://narrative.georgetown.edu/wiki/index.php/Stream_of_consciousness >.

"Stream of Consciousness”. Literary Devices. 2016. Literary Devices. 2 December 2016

< http://literarydevices.net/stream-of-consciousness/>.

"Stream of consciousness (narrative mode)”. Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 2 December 2016

< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_(narrative_mode)>.

"Stream of Consciousness in Modernism”. Shmoop. 2016. Shmoop University. 2 December 2016

< http://www.shmoop.com/modernism/stream-of-consciousness-characteristic.html>.

Watt, Homer A. and William W. Watt. A Handbook of English Literature. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1946

"What Is the Role of Stream of Consciousness in Literature?”. wiseGEEK. 2016. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2 December 2016

< http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-role-of-stream-of-consciousness-in-literature.htm>.

NB: This article was last updated on 17.10.2017

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Paradox

Definition

Paradox is a statement, proposition, or situation that seems to be absurd or contradictory, but in fact is or may be true.

Etymology

The English term paradox was borrowed during the mid-16^th century from the Late Latin noun paradoxum, which the Latin speakers adopted from the Greek adjective paradoxos meaning "contrary to expectation" which was combined from Greek prefix para- "contrary to" + doxa "opinion," the latter derived from dokein "to appear, to seem, to think, to accept".

Derivatives

adj. Paradoxical

adv. Paradoxically

Discussion

Paradox is a literary device wherein two seemingly contrasting ideas or statements are juxtaposed. A paradox may seem like a self-contradictory, silly statement at first, but upon further analysis, it will reveal a latent truth. Therefore, paradox consists of two levels:

1. Basic/surface level: the function of surface level is to conceal the rational meaning of a statement.
2. Higher/deeper level: the function of higher level is to reveal the actual truth behind a statement.

Thus paradox is understood when the surface meaning is distinguished from its deeper level, for example:

“Failure is the pillar of success.”

In the above sentence the surface meaning appears self-contradictory and silly as generally failure means lack of success. However, when we make a deeper analysis we find that failure helps us to determine whether we are moving in the right direction for success.

Function

1. Paradox helps develop reader's creativity by compelling them to ponder over a subject in an innovative way.
2. Paradox is employed to create unconventional imagery.
3. Authors use paradox to draw reader's attention.
4. Paradox makes the text more interesting.
5. Paradoxical statements often sum up the main ideas of the work.

Classification

Paradoxes could be categorized into the following ways:

1. Rhetorical Paradox: rhetorical paradox is a seemingly contrasting comment or statement made by a character. A well-known example of paradox appears in George Orwell’s Animal Farm (1945):

“All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others”.

2. Situational Paradox: situational paradox is a situation or circumstance that is contradictory. The following passage from Joseph Heller’s novel Catch-22 (1961) consists of an instance of situational paradox:

“There was only one catch and that was Catch-22, which specified that a concern for one’s safety in the face of dangers that were real and immediate was the process of a rational mind. Orr was crazy and could be grounded. All he had to do was ask; and as soon as he did, he would no longer be crazy and would have to fly more missions.”

Paradox vs. Oxymoron

Sl. #	Paradox	Oxymoron
	Paradox may consist of a sentence or even a group of sentences.	Oxymoron is a combination of two contradictory or opposite words.
	Paradox refers to actual conditions or concepts which appear to present an impossible situation.	Oxymoron refers to word combinations which are contradictory.
	Paradox arrests attention and provokes innovative thought.	Oxymoron creates a dramatic effect.
	Paradox is not solely a witty or amusing statement, often it can prove to be very revealing about human nature and the way that we speak.	Oxymoron is just the juxtaposition of two words for amusement.
	Paradox can be created using an oxymoron.	Oxymoron can be used to create a paradox.

 

 

 

 

References

“Difference Between Paradox and Oxymoron.” Pediaa.Com. 2016. Pediaa.Com. 4 November 2016

< http://pediaa.com/difference-between-paradox-and-oxymoron/>.

“Examples of Paradox.” Your Dictionary. 2016. LoveToKnow, Corp. 4 November 2016

< http://pediaa.com/difference-between-paradox-and-oxymoron/>.

“Paradox.” Wikipedia.com. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 4 November 2016

< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradox >.

“Paradox.” Literary Devices. 2016. Literary Devices. 4 November 2016

< http://literarydevices.net/paradox/>.

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Mock-epic

Definition

Mock-epic (also called mock-heroic or heroi-comic) is a long narrative poem written in mock-heroic style, intended to be humorous. More specifically, mock-epic is a parody of the epic style or manner by treating a trivial subject seriously.

Discussion

The terms mock-epic, mock-heroic, or heroi-comic are virtually interchangeable and are generally applied to literary works which involve either:

• imitation and burlesque of the structure, attitudes and conventions of the true epic, or
• ridicule of subject matter by handling an elevated subject in a trivial manner, or
• treatment of a low subject with epic dignity.

Satire is a fundamental technique used in all mock-epics. Several literary devices such as, irony, exaggeration, and sarcasm are extensively used to achieve the desired satiric effect. During its heyday mock-epic became the favorite genre for a number of notable poets to satirize the contemporary ideas and conditions.

Although used synonymously, the terms mock-heroic and mock-epic exhibit slight difference. In essence the former is a much broader term than the latter. To be specific, mock-heroic refers to any work (either prose or poetry) treating a trivial subject in embellished formal language and elevated vocabulary. Therefore, the term mock-heroic is not merely tagged with mock-epic rather it is applied to any works composed in the aforesaid style and manner. In fine, mock-heroic style is the ridiculed version of traditional heroic style.

Salient Features

A mock-epic usually consists of the following features:

Mock-heroic Characteristics:

• A sarcastic tone.
• A trivial or insignificant subject.
• A protagonist with exaggerated heroic qualities such as, stupidity, amorality, etc.
• Mockery of heroic style.

Epic-specific Conventions:

• Invocation in epic tradition.
• A formal statement of theme.
• Elaborate descriptions of battles, warriors and their weapons.
• Use of supernatural machinery.
• Journeys on water and down to the underworld.
• Long discussions.
• Boasting speeches.
• Use of grand and exalted style of the serious epic.
• Use of epic similes, or elaborate comparisons similar to Homer.
• Division of the work into books and cantos.

History

Mock-epic flourished in England during the late 17th and early 18th-century Neoclassical period as a reaction to traditional epic poetry. This genre created ample scope for the poets to expose the follies, vices, and affectations of the contemporary English society. John Dryden (1631–1700) is one of the earliest poets to popularize this genre with his Mac Flecknoe (1682). The poem is a direct attack on Thomas Shadwell (c. 1642–1692), a major contemporary of Dryden.

In the 18^th century the mock-epic was brilliantly executed in the works of Alexander Pope (1688–1744). Pope's The Rape of the Lock (1712; revised edition 1714) is deemed to be the finest paradigm of mock-epic in any literature. The poem accounts the stealing of a lock of hair of a pretty young lady that resembles the kidnapping of Helen of Troy portrayed in The Iliad. Pope treated the incident as if it were comparable to events that instigated the Trojan War. In this poem Pope did incredibly well in handling a trivial subject in the dignified style of a traditional epic. He incorporated almost all basic conventions of an epic, including the formal invocation, the supernatural machinery, a journey on water, a visit to the underworld, the arming of the epic hero, description of weapons, and a heroically scaled battle.

The Dunciad (1728–1743) is another famous mock-epic by Pope having many qualities of an epic. The poem accounts the conquest of England by Dulness, the daughter of Chaos and eternal Night. Beginning with an invocation to the Muse, Pope mockingly shows how her chosen hero brought decay, imbecility, and dullness to the kingdom of Great Britain.

During this time several prose works were also written in this form, including Henry Fielding's Joseph Andrews (1742), which is described by its author as “a comic epic ... in prose.”

In the 19^th century Romantic age Lord Byron wrote his long narrative poem Don Juan (1819–1824), which is also considered a mock-epic to some extent. By employing wit, humor, irony, exaggeration, etc. he exposed and satirized the hypocrisy and the corruption of higher society and in turn criticized the poetic tendency of the time as well. It is a mock-epic since his central character neither possesses any heroic property nor does he participate in any genuine adventure other than a few amorous ones.

Although chiefly considered to be flourished in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, its literary lineage reverts back to antiquity. It is assumed that the genre originated with the Batrachomyomachia or The Battle of the Frogs and the Mice, an anonymous burlesque and imitation of Homer’s Iliad. The aforesaid poem shows some tenets of treating a trivial subject by the heroic manner.

Epic vs. Mock-epic

Sl. #	Epic	Mock-epic
	Retells an important episode in the life of a hero who embodies the values and ambitions of a particular society.	Relates the exploits of a character who shows individualistic traits that the society does not officially approve of.
	The hero and major characters hail from upper class or nobility.	The hero is often a commoner, usually from lower social stratum, though sometimes upper class characters are also chosen.
	Treats a subject which is important and sublime, having a national interest.	Treats an essentially silly or trivial subject infused with personal interest.
	Intends to narrate the past through the life and heroic deeds of the hero.	Intends to expose the foibles and malpractices of society through the outlandish deeds and actions of the hero.
	Consists of several volumes and much longer in length.	Consists a fewer volumes and usually much shorter than the traditional epic.

 

 

 

 

References

Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7th ed. USA: H & H, 1999

"Characteristics of A Mock Epic”. Reference. 2016. Reference An IAC Publishing Labs Company.

15 October 2016

< https://www.reference.com/art-literature/characteristics-mock-epic-c5b71b52cf5baa7a>.

Cody, David. “The Mock Epic as Genre”. Victorian Web. 2016. Victorian Web. 15 October 2016

< http://www.victorianweb.org/previctorian/tech/mockepic.html>.

"Epic". Microsoft Encarta. DVD-ROM. Redmond: Microsoft, 2005.

Griffith, Benjamin W. A Pocket Guide to Literature and Language Terms. New York: Barron's, 1976

Gupta, A.N. and Satis Gupta. A Dictionary of English Literature. 2nd ed. Bareilly: PBD, 1995

" Mock-heroic”. Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 15 October 2016

< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mock-heroic>.

" Mock- epic”. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2016. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 15 October 2016

< https://global.britannica.com/art/mock-epic>.

 “Mock Epic”. bachelorandmaster.com. 2016. bachelorandmaster.com. 15 October 2016

< http://www.bachelorandmaster.com/literaryterms/mock-epic.html#.V_npGvSLWf8>.

“Mock Heroic”. crossref-it.info. 2016. crossref-it.info. 15 October 2016

< http://crossref-it.info/articles/412/Mock-heroic>.

Watt, Homer A. and William W. Watt. A Handbook of English Literature.

New York: Barnes & Noble, 1946

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Personification

Definition

Personification is a frequently employed figure of speech in literature. With this device, the human traits are attributed to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. More specifically, personification refers to treating objects and intangible things as persons without giving them human shape.

Let us consider the following instance of personification to understand its structure:

“Love stabbed him in the heart"

In the above sentence, the subject "love" is an abstract idea while the verb "stab" is a human-specific attribute. The aforesaid human attribute has been transferred into the subject to realize the personification process. The output is a personified version of "love" along with its still-intact nonhuman form. Herein "love" is conceived as if it were a living person and is capable of stabbing someone's heart. The structure of  personification can be further clarified by the following illustration:

Types

Based on the different cases of occurrences, personification could be classified in the following manner:

1. Non-human entities performing human actions: e.g. "The flowers danced in the gentle breeze"; "The pistol glared at me from its holster".
2. Non-human entities expressing human emotions: e.g. "The sea was boiling with rage"; "The trees sighed in the wind".
3. Abstract ideas are given human qualities: e.g. "Hunger sat shivering on the road"; "Misfortune never comes alone".

Determinants of Personification

• A careful reading of sentences.
• Identifying words containing a nonliving object or idea in the sentences.
• Identifying description of any lifeless entity treated as living a person.
• Identification of any implied meaning against any inanimate object or ideas.
• Analyzing the imagery in the passages thoroughly.
• Identification of a comparison between an object or idea with human traits.

Function

• Personification gives life to lifeless entities.
• Personification generates vivid imagery.
• Personification helps to emphasize a certain point.
• Personification makes the text more dramatic and complex.
• Personification increases the reader's interest in the story and helps to retain his attention till the end.
• Personification incorporates deeper meanings to ordinary objects.
• Personification inspires the audience to see things from different angles.
•  Personification helps to express human thoughts and motivations in a creative way.
• Personification makes an abstraction clearer and more real to the reader by defining or explaining the concept in terms of everyday human action.

Related Forms

Anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism is an extended form of personification in which human shape, traits, and actions or abilities are attributed to nonhuman things and beings like animals, deities, and lifeless objects. To be specific, anthropomorphism is the treating of animals and objects as if they were human in appearance, character, or behaviour.

The word anthropomorphism derives from the Greek words ánthrōpos, meaning "human" and morphē, meaning "shape" or "form". The term originally used to give human qualities to a deity. The Greeks and Romans used the idea in stories about their gods to bestow them human traits. Anthropomorphism is a recurring personification device in Aesop's Fables by the ancient Greek fabulist Aesop.  In English literature this device has been employed in Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland (1865), Anna Sewell's Black Beauty (1877), Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book (1894), George Orwell's Animal Farm (1945), etc. Anthropomorphism has always been a favourite device for cartoonists. Some notable classic anthropomorphic cartoon characters include Mickey Mouse (1928), Goofy (1932), Daffy Duck (1937), Bugs Bunny (1938), Garfield (1978), etc. A more contemporary example includes SpongeBob, the title character in SpongeBob SquarePants (1999).

Personification Vs Anthropomorphism

In the majority of mainstream definitions, the terms are used interchangeably and the result is an overlap of functions from the both ends.  Even most teachers, as well as students, are unfamiliar with the term anthropomorphism. What teachers label as personification in classrooms is actually a hybrid of personification and anthropomorphism. Again, the majority of textbooks also present a mixed-up definition.

Although their functions appear to be analogous from a general point of view, in essence, they exhibit slight differences:

Sl. #	Personification	Anthropomorphism
1.	Personification is the attribution of human characteristics such as emotions, sensations, etc. to abstract ideas like love, hate, anger, death, peace, etc.	Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics and qualities to animals, deities and objects.
2.	Personification occurs when human characteristics are ascribed to non-human entities without altering their non-human form.	Anthropomorphism occurs when a non-human entity fully and clearly embodies human traits, emotions and personalities, including a human form. That means anthropomorphized subjects look like human and they can walk, talk and act like humans.
3.	Personification is a narrower term since its coverage of association of human traits is limited to object and abstract ideas only.	Anthropomorphism is a much broader term since it can associate human traits to a wide variety of subjects, including animals, deities, natural and supernatural phenomena, and objects.
4.	The imagery drawn by personification presents a connotative or figurative meaning.	The imagery drawn by anthropomorphism presents a literal meaning.
5.	Personification is gender-neutral since we can describe an object without naming it or specifying its gender.	Anthropomorphism is gender-specific since we use the name and ascribe gender-specific human shape to describe animals, objects, etc.

Pathetic Fallacy

The term pathetic fallacy was coined by John Ruskin in 1856. It is the technique for ascribing the mood and temperament of one or more characters in relation to a natural phenomenon. For example,

 “The sky darkened as the young damsel wailed for her deceased lover.”

In the above instance, the human emotion “wailing” has been attributed to a natural phenomenon i.e., the “sky” in order to reflect the character’s state of mind.

Pathetic Fallacy Vs Personification

Personification is often confused with pathetic fallacy, which is illogical since it is distinct and different form personification in terms of function:

Sl. #	Pathetic Fallacy	Personification
1.	Pathetic fallacy describes a temperament of the human mind referring to nature.	Personification is used to convey a human emotion or quality directly attributing it to an object or abstract idea.
2.	Pathetic fallacy often occurs by accident.	Personification occurs on purpose.
3.	Pathetic fallacy is a narrower term since it ascribes human quality only to natural phenomena like the weather.	Personification is a broader term since its attribution of human ideas is not only restricted to objects but also to abstract ideas.

Apostrophe

Apostrophe refers to a direct address to an absent person (either dead or alive), inanimate or abstract entity as if the addressee is capable of understanding the addresser's feelings. The word "O" is often used to indicate such an invocation.

A classic example of apostrophe includes John Donne’s Death, be not proud (1609), where the speaker talks to death throughout the poem as if it were a person capable of comprehending his feelings:

“Death, be not proud, though some have called thee
Mighty and dreadful, for thou are not so;
For those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrow
Die not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me.”

In his 1807 poem London, 1802  the English poet William Wordsworth apostrophizes the dead poet John Milton:

“Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour:
England hath need of thee: she is a fen
Of stagnant waters: altar, sword, and pen,
Fireside, the heroic wealth of hall and bower,
Have forfeited their ancient English dower
Of inward happiness. We are selfish men;
Oh! raise us up, return to us again;”

Shelley employs apostrophe in his celebrated poem Ode to the West Wind (1820):

“O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn's being,
Thou, from whose unseen presence the leaves dead
Are driven, like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing,”

The following illustration demonstrates how an absent addressee is being apostrophized by the addressee:

Apostrophe Vs Personification

Apostrophe is different from personification to the following extent:

Sl. #	Apostrophe	Personification
1.	An apostrophe makes reference to something or somebody who is absent in the scene.	In personification, the object under reference does not necessarily need to be absent from the scene.
2.	Persons, objects, and abstractions are directly addressed as if they can understand human emotion.	Objects and ideas are attributed to human qualities.

Metaphor Vs Personification

Although both metaphor and personification is a type of comparison, yet they apply different techniques. In metaphor, a comparison is made between two different objects with an implication that they are similar on single or some common characteristics. On the other hand, in personification human characteristics are attributed to an object or idea to describe it as human with an implication that they are literally the same thing.

References

Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7^th ed. USA: H & H, 1999

" Anthropomorphism”. Shmoop. 2016. Shmoop University. 2 August 2016

< http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/anthropomorphism.html>.

“Anthropomorphism.” Microsoft Encarta. DVD-ROM. Redmond: Microsoft, 2005.

“Apostrophe (figure of speech)”. Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 2 August 2016

< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostrophe_(figure_of_speech)>.

" Characterization”. Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 2 August 2016

< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphism>.

Griffith, Benjamin W. A Pocket Guide to Literature and Language Terms. New York: Barron's, 1976

" Personification”. Literary Devices. 2016. Literary Devices. 2 August 2016

< http://www.literarydevices.com/personification/>.

" Personification”. Literary Devices. 2016. Literary Devices. 2 August 2016

< http://literarydevices.net/personification/>.

" Personification”. Simple English Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 2 August 2016

< https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personification>.

“Pathetic Fallacy”. Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 2 August 2016

< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathetic_fallacy>.

“Metaphor”. Tanvir’s Blog. 2016. Tanvir Shameem. 2 August 2016

< http://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.com/2014/09/metaphor.html>.

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Character in Literature

Definition

A character refers to a fictional person portrayed by the author in a play, novel, short story, or poetry. Sometimes animals and objects are also adopted as characters, but they are presented by means of personification. Characters play a vital role in the development of the central theme of a literary work through their dialogue, actions, mood and attitude.

Types of Characters

1. Dynamic Character: A dynamic character is one who undergoes a significant change in his traits/qualities such as, personality or outlook, etc. throughout the story. Through suffering, mistakes and experiment a dynamic character gains new experience which in turn makes him a changed man. For example, initially, Ebenezer Scrooge from Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol (1843) is portrayed as a mean, bitter, and covetous personality. However, after his encounter with the three ghosts, he becomes a generous, kind, and beloved man. In fact, the term "dynamic" doesn't define the character's qualities but rather refers to how those qualities change over time. Dynamic characters are usually central characters.
2. Static Character: A static character is one who does not undergo any significant transition in his traits/qualities such as, personality, outlook, etc. throughout the events in the story's plot. In other words, a static character is mostly the same person at the end of the story as he was at the beginning and all his actions in between stay true to that personality. Mr. Collins from Pride and Prejudice (1813) by Jane Austen is an example of a static character since his character does not change until the end of the novel. Static characters are generally the minor characters.
3. Round Character: A round character is a major character in a story that encounters conflicts and undergoes transformations by these with a sign of emotional and psychological development. The character is complex and it increases in complexity throughout the story. Although many people place the dynamic and round characters in one category, yet they are not the same thing.  A dynamic character does not tell about the traits of the character rather only tells about the traits that change over the time. A round character, on the other hand, defines the complex traits of the character.
4. Flat Character: A flat character is relatively uncomplicated and does not transform too much from the start of the narrative to its end. Flat characters are constructed around a single idea or quality and often said not to have either surprising ability or emotional depths, hence such characters are easily recognizable. Although both the static and the flat characters remain unchanged throughout the story, there is a slight difference between them. Whereas the former has two dimensions and can be as interesting as the central character, the latter generally has only one dimension and is only capable of playing a minor role.
5. Protagonist: The protagonist is the main character or leading figure in a story, novel, drama, or poetry. Sometimes the protagonist is represented as an antihero. However, even as antihero the protagonist is able to retain the audience’s interest and keeps propelling the story forward. For example, In Shakespeare’s play, Romeo and Juliet (1597), Romeo is the protagonist.
6. Antihero: An antihero is a protagonist who is devoid of all conventional qualities such as, bravery, strength, charm, intelligence etc. Such character usually possesses traits like clumsiness, dishonesty, aggressiveness, fearfulness, etc.
7. False Protagonist: A false protagonist is a trick used by the authors to bring about an unexpected twist in the plot. The false protagonist is presented in such a way that the audience takes him to be the central character. However, this misconception is resolved when the character is unexpectedly removed by killing or changing his role, often into a lesser character or antagonist.
8. Antagonist: The antagonist is a major character in a story who stands in opposition or creates obstacles to the protagonist. The conflict between the antagonist and the protagonist often generates the action or plot of the work. However, an antagonist must not be confused with a villain. The role of an antagonist is to oppose and create obstructions to the protagonist's goal, while a villain is a character who acts in opposition to the hero with evil intentions. While not every antagonist is a villain, it is generally true that all villains are antagonists to the main character.
9. Villain: A villain plays the role of the principal bad character in a work of fiction. The villain usually is the antagonist who acts in opposition to the protagonist. However, in some cases, the protagonist may assume the role of a villain.
10. Stock Character: A stock character is a stereotypical person who is instantly recognizable to most readers. These characters are types and not individuals. A Stock character is based on clichés and social prejudices. Examples include the professor, the wise old man, the everyman, the gentleman thief, etc. They are not focus characters nor are they developed in the story. The stock character does almost nothing to affect the main characters and can be easily replaced with a new character.
11. Foil: A foil is employed to enhance the qualities of another character through contrast. Usually, a foil is the antagonist or an important supporting character whose personal traits contrast with the protagonist or a major character. However, foils are not focus characters nor are they developed in the story. They help us learn more about another character or aspect of a story. For instance, In Hamlet (1603), Laertes has been portrayed as a foil to Hamlet.
12. Confidante (masc: Confidant): A character in a drama or fiction, such as a friend or servant, who the protagonist confides in and trusts. A confidant serves as a device for revealing the inner thoughts or intentions of the main character. Her role is to listen to the protagonist's secrets, examine his character, and advise him on his actions. Rather than simply acting as a passive listener for the protagonist's monologues, the confidant may himself act to move the story forward, or serve to guide and represent the reactions of the audience. For example Horatio in Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1603).
13. Viewpoint Character: Also called narrator. A type of character by whose perspective or eyes the audience witnesses the events in a narrative. Generally, the narrator narrates the events from several points of view or perspectives. Based on perspectives a narrator is categorized in:
    1. First Person Narrator: A first person narrator is said to have used when the story is told someone who identifies himself or herself as “I". This "I" can be the main character, a less important character witnessing events, or a person retelling a story they were told by someone else.
    2. Second Person Narrator: In second person, the narrator addresses the protagonist as "you." Often, this kind of story has the narrator speaking to a younger version of his self.
    3. Third Person Narrator is used when the story is told by someone who is not a participant in the action and who refers to the characters by name or as ‘he‘ 'she" and "they". In this case, the narrator is not a character in the story. Third person narrator has two variations:
       1. Omniscient Narrator: This type of narrator knows everything about the characters and events, can move about in time and place as well as from character to character at will, and can, whenever he or she wishes, enter the mind of any character.
       2. Limited omniscient narrator: Also called central intelligence. In this variation, the narrative elements are limited to what a single character sees, thinks, and hears.

Characterization

In fiction, characterization refers to the artistic representation of a person. It is the step by step process wherein the author introduces and then describes a character.  With its help the author makes a fictional character seem like a real person. Generally, authors resort to the following processes to shape and form their characters:

1. Direct Characterization: Also called explicit characterization. It is a type of characterization in which the details and personality of a character are revealed in a direct manner. In other words, in such process the author makes straightforward comments about specific traits of a character, which may include but not limited to love, hatred, fear, habits, etc. An outstanding instance of direct characterization could be traced in Sonnet 130 by the English poet and playwright William Shakespeare:

“My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun;

Coral is far more red than her lips’ red;

If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;

If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.”

 

1. Indirect Characterization: Also called implicit characterization. It is a process of character creation in which the author reveals the details and personality of a character by indication rather than by direct statement. To be specific, it is the audience's task to study the character and draw a conclusion about it. Through his imagination, the audience portrays a true and vivid image of the character. Hence, it is a more creative and engaging process than direct characterization. However, it is not devoid of shortcomings since the audience may make an erroneous or inappropriate inference about a character. The audience generally infers what a character is like by analyzing:

• his appearance.
• his thoughts.
• his actions.
• his speech.
• his interaction with other characters.
• his manner of speech.
• others’ remarks about him
• what others do to him
• his reaction to others.
• his reaction to himself.
• his or her environment.

 

Character Traits

In literature, each character reflects certain traits that guide the audience to draw a conclusion about their specific roles. Some common character traits are as follows:

• Greedy
• Rude
• Pessimistic
• Wicked
• Selfish
• Funny 
• Talkative
• Shy 
• Evil
• Brave  
• Cunning
• Deceptive
• Ambitious 

Importance of Characters

Literature is an artistic representation of the real world. More like the real world the fictional world is also incomplete without characters. Therefore, characters are inevitable elements in a literary work. The importance of characters could be outlined as under:

1. Characters help the audience to understand the overall message or theme in a particular literary work.
2. Characters are akin to an engine driving the whole narrative in a coherent scheme.
3. Characters provide ample scope for developing unique plots.
4. Well-drawn characters compel the readers to retain interest till the end of the story.
5. Characters help the audience for better understanding of human motivations in the real world.
6. Characters help the author to maintain the gradual flow of the story.
7. Characters’ dialogues, actions, attitudes, etc. are considered important elements for the development of the theme.

 

References

Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7^th ed. USA: H & H, 1999

" Characterization”. Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 26 July 2016

< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characterization >.

“Characterization”. Literary Devices. 2016. Literary Devices. 26 July 2016

< http://literarydevices.net/characterization/>.

“Characterization 1”. English 250. 2016. English 250. 26 July 2016

< http://www.ohio.edu/people/hartleyg/ref/fiction/character1.html>.

Gupta, A.N. and Satis Gupta. A Dictionary of English Literature. 2^nd ed. Bareilly: PBD, 1995

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Theme in Literature

Definition

Theme refers to the general topic or subject, or the main idea in a literary work such as, a story, an essay, or a narrative. Some common examples of themes include: love, friendship, war, crime, punishment, death, revenge, nature, isolation, etc.

Characteristics

The basic characteristics of a theme could be outlined as under:

• It acts as a framework for the entire literary piece.
• It is a distinct, recurring, and unifying quality or idea.
• It is usually universal in nature.
• Generally conveys a moral or message about society, life or human nature.
• Stated either direct or indirect manner.
• Theme is abstract in nature.
•  A theme does not necessarily need to be true in the real world.
• Theme binds together everything: the characters, the plot and the setting.

Components

A theme has two components namely, the thematic concept and the thematic statement. The thematic concept simply refers to the subject or topic of the work, while the thematic statement refers to what the author remarks or opines about that subject. The thematic concept thus is usually an abstract element, like “transgression” or “atonement”, while the thematic statement is generally the concretization of that abstract idea through images, setting, and most commonly through the characters’ actions, words, and thoughts. Whereas the former is expressed in word or phrase level, the latter is expressed in a sentence and is often a general statement about society, life or human nature.

Types of Themes

Themes are of two types: major themes and minor themes.  A Major theme is an idea which is repeated or given prominence throughout the story. Hence it acts as the central driving force in a literary work. A minor theme, on the other hand, is an idea that occurs for a short period. It is of less significance and usually appears for part of the story only to be replaced by another minor theme.

For instance, Saul Bellow’s Seize the Day (1956) consists of the following major and minor themes:

Major Themes

• Alienation.
• Meaningless of Life.
• Affirmation of Human Life.

Minor Themes

• Deceit.
• Conflict between Father and Son.
• Conflict between Husband and Wife.

Determining a Theme

A literary work may comprise more than one theme. The writer himself may infuse his work with multiple themes. Again, the same work may produce other themes due to reader’s individualistic way of interpretation. It is indeed, very hard to stipulate any specific yardstick for identifying a theme. This statement is very logical when we compare it with the point of individualistic interpretation as stated earlier. However, we can still try to identify themes by the following ways:

• Studying character’s dialogues.
• Studying character’s thoughts and feelings.
• Studying character's actions, beliefs, etc.
• Studying specific events and contexts.
• Studying character’s change in mood and attitude.
• Studying the author's background.
• Identifying the main topics or subjects.
• Analyzing the title of the work.
• Determining the imagery, motifs, figure of speech, etc.
• Identifying the presence of any universal topics, such as human struggle and so the like.

 

 

 

References

Gupta, A.N. and Satis Gupta. A Dictionary of English Literature. 2^nd ed. Bareilly: PBD, 1995

Griffith, Benjamin W. A Pocket Guide to Literature and Language Terms. Newyork: Barron's, 1976

“Theme”. Literary Terms. 2016. Literary Terms. 15 July 2016 < http://literaryterms.net/theme/>.

" Theme (narrative)”. Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 15 July 2016

< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_(narrative)>.

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Metaphor

Definition

Metaphor is a figure of speech consisting of two essentially different objects, ideas, actions, or feelings with an implication that the objects are similar or identical on some point of comparison.

Etymology

The English word metaphor is derived from the French word métaphore, which is derived from the Latin word metaphora, meaning “carrying over”, from Greek metaphérein, meaning “to transfer”, from meta-, meaning "over, across" + pherein, meaning "to carry, to bear”. The earliest known usage of metaphor in English dates from the 15th century.

Discussion

Metaphors are often considered as a compressed form of similes. In metaphors an object of one class is equated with an object of another class based on a single or common point of resemblance. In other words, metaphors chiefly suggest that 'A is B'. This comparison is implicit or implied, rather than being specifically stated. Metaphor has two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor is the subject or topic to which attributes are ascribed. The vehicle is the object whose attributes are borrowed to transform the subject into something else. We can explain this by considering an example: “Jonathan is a tiger”

In the above sentence Jonathan and tiger are from two different classes, that is, the former being a human and the latter being a feline. Here Jonathan the tenor and tiger is the vehicle. In this sentence the implicit point of comparison is “braveness” and “courage”.

Determinants of Metaphors

Lay readers often confuse metaphors with similes. Although there are no definite rules, one can follow the under- mentioned steps to determine whether a metaphor is present in a text or sentence:

1. See whether two things are compared.
2. Find whether the two things are dissimilar/unlike.
3. Figure out whether the objects are implicitly compared.
4. Notice whether the comparison is made without “like”, “as”, “than” or “as if”.

 

Functions of Metaphors

Metaphors are abundantly used in all types of literature, whether it is poetry or prose. But its use is not merely restricted to literature only; rather it is extensively used in everyday conversations. The function of metaphor is as under:

• Metaphors create a text more interesting as the readers get much opportunity to use their creativity to grasp the writer’s intent.
• Metaphors can make the relatively plain characters and events of a literary work more lively and realistic.

Differences between Metaphors and Similes

Metaphor and simile should not be considered equivalent since they are different in certain respects:

1. A metaphor makes a hidden or implicit comparison by stating two different objects as same or equal. A simile on the other hand, explicitly asserts that one thing is like another.
2. A Metaphor makes the comparison between the two things figuratively so the reader is not able to understand the meaning by dictionary meaning. Contrariwise, in a simile the comparison between two objects are made literally as the reader can interpret the writer’s intension by dictionary meaning.

Types of Metaphors

Despite a dearth of specific yardstick a number theorists endeavoured to classify metaphors from their personal point of view. Consequently, the classification of metaphors may include but not limited to the following:

1. Absolute Metaphor: also called paralogical metaphor or antimetaphor, a type of metaphor in which there is absolutely no connection/relation between the subject and the vehicle. Such a metaphor is often used to mislead the audience. For example: We are the eyelids of defeated caves.
2. Conventional Metaphor: a type of metaphor which is used in everyday language and it is so common that the majority of readers are able to comprehend it.
3. Extended Metaphor: also called conceit or sustained metaphor, where a single metaphor is used and the comparison is continued throughout several sentences in a poem.
4. Root Metaphor: a root metaphor is rooted or embedded within a language to such an extent that the native speakers often fail to distinguish it as a metaphor. Nonetheless, root metaphors are important since different metaphors stem from them. Root metaphors basically encapsulate an individual’s perception of a particular situation.
5. Mixed Metaphor: when two or more contrary metaphors occur in a same sentence to develop a single idea is called a mixed metaphor. A mixed metaphor is not well structured and the comparison is often confusing and comical.
6. Simple Metaphor: also called tight metaphor, a type of metaphor which suggests a single point of resemblance between the tenor and the vehicle. For example: Alice is an angel.
7. Compound Metaphor: also called loose metaphor, which suggests several points of similarity. In such metaphor, each part signifies an additional point of meaning in order to surprise the reader again and again. The parts often comprise adverbs and adjectives.
8. Complex Metaphor: a complex metaphor is one in which a secondary metaphor is layered over a simple metaphor.
9. Active Metaphor: also known as live metaphor, which is relatively new and has not yet been established as a linguistic component in everyday speech. Such a metaphor is not obvious to all listeners and remains in obscurity unless used in appropriate context.
10. Dead Metaphor: also known as frozen metaphor, extinct metaphor is one which has lost its power to startle the listener due to overuse. Nowadays these types of metaphors exist in the vocabulary as ordinary words since their original meaning has been lost. Some theorists suggest two other states of dead metaphor:

a. Dormant Metaphor: this is a temporarily inactive metaphor since we use it without being conscious of its metaphorical significance.

b. Dying Metaphor: A dying metaphor is one which is in the process of becoming a cliché owing to extensive usage. In time its original meaning will be extinct.

Drawbacks of Metaphor

Although metaphors play a vital role to make a text interesting, sometimes it may do quite the opposite. Firstly, the reader may find a metaphor uninteresting if the analogy is too vague to comprehend. Lastly, the analogy made by metaphors is never precise; rather it is merely an approximation of the point of similarity.

 

 

References

“How Metaphors Work.” Changing Minds. 2014. Changing Minds. 4 August 2014

<http://changingminds.org/techniques/language/metaphor/how_work.htm>.

 “Metaphor.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2014. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 4 August 2014

< http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/377872/metaphor>.

“Metaphor.” Wikipedia. 2014. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 4 August 2014

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simile>.

“Metaphor (Figure Of Speech and Thought).” About.com. 2014. About.com. 4 August 2014

<http://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/metaphorterm.htm>.

“Metaphor.” Literary Devices. 2014. Literary Devices. 4 August 2014

<http://literarydevices.net/metaphor/>.

“Metaphor.” Urban Dictionary. 2014. Urban Dictionary. 4 August 2014

<http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=metaphor>.

“Metaphor.” Shmoop University. 2014. Shmoop University. 4 August 2014

<http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/metaphor.html>.

“Metaphor.” EnglishClub. 2014. EnglishClub. 4 August 2014

<http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/figures-metaphor.htm>.

 “The Fifteen Types of Metaphors.” Answers.com. 2014. Answers.com. 4 August 2014

<http://english.answers.com/figures-of-speech/the-15-types-of-metaphors>.

“What Are the Different Types of Metaphors?.” Wise Geek. 2014. Conjecture Corporation. 4 August 2014

<http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-different-types-of-metaphors.htm>.

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Simile

Definition

Simile is a figure of speech which seeks to find some point or points of resemblance between two essentially different objects, actions, or feelings.

Etymology

The term simile is from Middle English, which thought to be first used in the 14^th century. It was derived from the Late Latin word similis, meaning like, similar or resembling.

Discussion

In similes, an object in one class is said to be like an object in another class. This juxtaposed comparison is explicitly indicated by the conjunctions such as “like” or “as”, which establishes the direct relation between the objects. The literal object which evokes the comparison is called the tenor and the object which describes it is called the vehicle.  To explain this we can consider the sentence: “Jonathan is as strong as a tiger”

In the above sentence Jonathan and tiger are from two different classes, that is, the former being a human and the latter being a feline. Here Jonathan is the tenor, while tiger is the vehicle. In this construct, Jonathan’s physical strength is being compared to the strength of a tiger, but not that he is a real tiger. Therefore, here we have basically drawn the point of similarity on the point of strength.

Exception in Similes

The majority of English teachers maintain that a simile is always formed by either “like” or “as”. But it should be noted that although very common, similes are not always formed by “like” or “as”. This is because there are some similes which are made with “than” and “as if”. For instance:

• In the eyes of his fans, he is larger than life.
• He was crying as if he were mad.

Besides, still, there are some instances where a simile is made without “like”, “as”, “than” or “as if”.  For example:

“Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate:”
(William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18)

Determinants of Similes

Similes pose greater problems for lay readers. Most often they confuse similes with metaphors. Although there are no definite rules, one can follow the under- mentioned steps to determine whether a simile is present in a text or sentence:

1. See whether two things are compared.
2. Find whether the two things are dissimilar/unlike.
3. Figure out whether the objects are explicitly compared.
4. Notice whether conjunctions such as “like”, “as”, “than” or “as if” is used.

Function of Similes

The use of similes is not merely restricted to literary works; rather its presence is very common in our everyday life as well. Generally, similes are employed in order to achieve the following plus points:

1. Similes make a text more enjoyable and creative since the reader gets immense opportunity to use his imaginative power to comprehend what is being conveyed by the poet.
2. Similes make the poet’s language more vivid or descriptive.
3. Similes restrict the poet from using illogical comparison.
4. Through the use of similes, the poet can change his tone of voice in a wide variety of ways, ranging from humorous, grave, spiteful, etc.
5. Similes inspire life-like quality in our daily talks and in the characters of fiction or poetry.

Differences between Similes and Metaphors

Although many people argue that there is little difference between similes and metaphors, in reality, these two are dissimilar in a number of respects:

1. A simile is where two objects are explicitly compared by using “as”, “like”, “than” or “as if”. A metaphor, on the other hand, also compares two things but without using “as”, “like”, “than” or “as if” and the comparison between the two things is implicit or implied, rather than being specifically stated.
2. Similes state that the two objects share a common feature, whereas metaphors state that the two objects are the same or equal.
3. In a simile, the comparison between two objects is made literally as the reader can interpret the writer’s intension by dictionary meaning. Contrariwise, a Metaphor makes the comparison between the two entities figuratively, that is the reader is not able to understand the meaning by dictionary meaning.
4. Although similes and metaphors are generally seen as interchangeable, similes are more tentative and decorative than a metaphor.

Types of Similes

1. Everyday Speech Similes

A Simile in everyday speech is different than that of a simile used in literature. In daily communication similes are structured based on common domestic objects, for example:

• He is sharp like a knife
• She cries like a baby
• His brain works like a computer
• She is as tall as a palm tree
• He is as brave as a tiger
• He is as chubby as a pumpkin

2. Literary Similes

A simile in literature, on the other hand, is not as simple as the one used in everyday speech. In literature similes could be specific and direct or more lengthy and complex, for example:

"Her face was shining like the seat of a bus driver's trousers."
(P.G. Wodehouse, “Jeeves and the Feudal Spirit”, 1954)

"A sickly light, like yellow tinfoil, was slanting over the high walls into the jail yard."
(George Orwell, "A Hanging", 1931)

"She dealt with moral problems as a cleaver deals with meat."
(James Joyce, "The Boarding House", 1914)

3. Negative Similes

Although the majority of similes are structured with positive comparison, a negative comparison is also possible, for instance:

'My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun;'
(William Shakespeare, “Sonnet 130”, 1609)

4. Overlapped Similes

A simile may incorporate other figures of speech such as hyperbole, understatement, imagery, or irony. For example, the following simile consists of a hyperbole:

• My soul has grown deep like the rivers.

5. Homeric or Epic Similes

Epic similes are a type of extended comparisons, usually comparing a character or action to a natural event, running to several lines. Such similes are typically used in epic poems. Epic simile is also called Homeric simile as the Attic author used it in his famous epics Iliad and the Odyssey. The employment of epic simile not only intensifies the heroic stature of the subject matter but also serves as decoration. Typical Homeric simile makes a comparison to some kind of event, in the form "like” or “as”. The object of the comparison is usually something strange or unfamiliar to something ordinary and familiar.

“I drove my weight on it from above and bored it home
like a shipwright bores his beam with a shipwright's drill
that men below, whipping the strap back and forth, whirl
and the drill keeps twisting, never stopping –
So we seized our stake with it fiery tip
and bored it round and round in the giant's eye...”
(Homer, “The Odyssey” , 700 b.c.e.)

Epic similes sometimes involve multiple points of correspondence between the tenor and the vehicle. For example:

“Incenst with indignation Satan stood
Unterrifi'd, and like a Comet burn'd,
That fires the length of Ophiucus huge
In th' Artick Sky, and from his horrid hair
Shakes Pestilence and Warr. Each at the Head
Level'd his deadly aime; thir fatall hands
No second stroke intend, and such a frown
Each cast at th' other, as when two black Clouds
With Heav'ns Artillery fraught, come rattling on
Over the Caspian, then stand front to front
Hov'ring a space, till Winds the signal blow
To joyn thir dark Encounter in mid air:
So frownd the mighty Combatants, that Hell
Grew darker at thir frown, so matcht they stood...”
(John Milton, “Paradise Lost”, 1667)

 

References

“Epic Simile.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2014. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 14 July 2014

<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/189681/epic-simile>.

 “Examples of Similes.” Your Dictionary. 2014. LoveToKnow, Corp. 14 July 2014

<http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-similes.html>.

 “Simile.” Wikipedia. 2014. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 14 July 2014

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simile>.

“Simile.” Literary Devices. 2014. Literary Devices. 14 July 2014

<http://literarydevices.net/simile/>.

 “Simile.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2014. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 14 July 2014

<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/545113/simile>.

“Simile.” Faculty of English. 2011. Faculty of English, University of Cambridge. 14 July 2014

<http://www.english.cam.ac.uk/classroom/terms.htm>.

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Romanticism

Romanticism is a major literary movement which emerged towards the end of the 18th century, the waning days of Neoclassicism. The Romantic Movement assumedly emerged in Germany, although the main source of inspiration came from the events and ideologies of the French Revolution. The Industrial Revolution, beginning in the same year, is presumed to be responsible for the growth of this movement. However, it is generally said that this epoch-making literary movement was initiated in 1798 by the publication of Lyrical Ballads, which was written by William Wordsworth in collaboration with his friend S.T. Coleridge. In essence, the romantic elements had been present in literature for centuries. The Elizabethan Age, for example, was essentially featured with romantic spirit. No matter who or which kindled Romanticism, the movement indisputably exerted a significant influence on the literature across the globe. The age is truly endowed with unique literary output. The movement ended in the 3rd decade of the 19th century when new literary movements like the Parnassians, Symbolism, Realism and Naturalism made ways.

Basic Premises

Romanticism ushered in as a reaction against Neoclassicism. Therefore, in Romanticism:

1.       imagination was praised over reason and intellect.
2.       emotions were given prominence over logic/rationality.
3.       intuition was given importance over science.
4.       rural and the natural settings found much attention than the urban life.
5.       subjective poetry was replaced by public impersonal poetry.

Major Characteristics

No romantic writer followed any specific rules or regulations and as such no precise characteristics could be proposed. However, the major characteristics of Romanticism are roughly as follows:

1. Rebellion and Revolution: The Romantic Movement was a revolt against all artificiality, it sought to alter the prevailing literary tradition to the following extant:

a) Individuality/Subjectivity: Pursuant to their philosophy the poet was seen as the creator of a piece of writing which reflected his individuality and inner mind. Such a view paved the way for subjective poems.

b) Simplicity of Expression/Spontaneity: The Romantics deviated from strict rules and regulations of the preceding era and concentrated on writing in simple language of the common people. Their theme was also relatively simple and modest.

c) Freedom of Thought and Expression: The Romantics gave special attention to emancipation of expression which helped them to unleash the creativity, imagination, feelings, emotion and passion without any obstruction.

2. Nationalism: The Romantics produced their works by inspiring from the folklore that was created by the masses or the common people. As they showed pofound interest in developing/rediscovering the folklore, culture of their own country, they developed a sense of Nationalism.

3. Idealization of Nature: Nature is a prevailing theme in Romantic literature. The Romantics were profoundly in love with the beauty of Nature. To them Nature was a impassioned and benign force which protects man. They viewed nature as the best place to take refuge from the complications of urban life. The Romantics combined it as a gateway to transcendental experience and truth.

4. Melancholy and Escapism: Generally a pessimistic tone pervades the Romantic literature as the Romantics were dissatisfied with their lives, time, and the overall condition of the humankind. The Romantics tried to escape into an imaginative world created by them to avoid the sordid realities of life.

6. Love for Medievalism/Focus on Exotic Locations: They often escaped into Strange and far-away places of the Middle Ages as they not only provided them an escape from the real world but also provided an opportunity to create a sense of remoteness or mysterious environment.

7. Love for the Supernatural or the Occult: The Romantics were greatly fascinated by the magic and mystery of the universe. They could feel the presence of concealed powers in nature. That is why in majority of Romantic literature we see the stories of ghost, magicians, goddesses, witchcraft, etc. The Romantic literature is as such mystical and foreign from everyday experiences of life.

Chief Representatives

The essence of Romanticism was first seen in France and Germany by the late 18^th century. Initially the inspiration came from two great thinkers:

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

French philosopher, social and political theorist, and musician. He was one of the most influential writers of the Age of Enlightenment. Rousseau’s concept of the individual freedom left a major influence on the development of the 19^th century Romanticism.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)

German poet, dramatist, novelist, and scientist. Goethe’s plays and novels reflect an insightful exploration of human individuality. His novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774; translated 1779) is deemed to be one of the great influential documents of Romanticism.

English Romanticism

From the above discussion it is clear that the English Romanticism received much of its inspiration from the writings of Rousseau andGoethe. However,it was formally launched in Britain by William Wordsworth (1770-1850)and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834).The duos published a joint volume of poetry, Lyrical Ballads (1798), which started Romanticism. It contained the first great works of the Romantic school. Wordsworth's “Preface” to the second edition (1800) of Lyrical Ballads, became the manifesto of the English Romantic movement in poetry.

William Wordsworth (1770-1850)

 

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834)

Other Followers

Lord Byron (1788 –1824)

English poet, mostly known for the influence of his poetry on the Romantic Movement although his writing style was somewhat classical. In his works he disregarded rationality and emphasized the imagination and the emotions. His major works include Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (1812-18) and Don Juan (1819-24).

P.B. Shelley (1792–1822)

English poet, considered by many to be among the greatest, and one of the most influential leaders of the Romantic Movement. His notable Romantic poems include To a Skylark (1820), To the West Wind (1819), and The Cloud (1820).

John Keats (1795–1821)

Major English poet, whose use of classical legend with rich poetic imagination captured the true spirit of Romanticism. His Romantic attitude best expressed in Ode to a Nightingale, Ode on a Grecian Urn, Ode on Melancholy and To Autumn.

Early Romantics

Thomas Gray (1716-1771)

Leading English poet in the mid-18^th Century. He is the precursor of the Romantic Movement. Gray is mostly remembered today for his poem An Elegy Written in a Country Church Yard.

William Collins (1721-1759)

Prominent 18^th century poet, who is regarded as one of the most important pre-Romantic English lyric poets. Although he followed the Neoclassical poetic forms, his themes were very much Romantic. His major works comprise, How Sleep the Brave, Ode to Evening, Ode to Simplicity, The Passions, and Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands of Scotland (1750).

William Blake (1757-1827)

English poet, painter, and engraver, considered by many to be one of the earliest and greatest figures of Romanticism. His apex works are Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794).

Robert Burns (1759-1796)

Scottish poet and writer of traditional Scottish folk songs, who is often labeled  a pre-Romantic poet for his sensitivity to nature, his high valuation of feeling and emotion, his spontaneity, his fierce stance for freedom and against authority, his individualism, and his antiquarian interest in old songs and legends.

Transcendentalism

In America a similar type of movement began to flourish under a different label. It was known as Transcendentalism, which emerged from New England by incorporating new ideas in literature, religion, culture, and philosophy. The term was first used by the opponents of this school of thought. The movement began in the early 19^th Century as a protest against the increasing dehumanization and materialism engendered by the Industrial Revolution and the spiritual inadequacy of the established religious beliefs. The movement was much stimulated by the English and German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Herder and Schleiermacher, and the skepticism of Hume. However, the transcendental philosophy was systematically explored in Nature (1836), a book by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Its publication marked the beginning of this period. The movement ended in the late 19^th century by the advent of Anti-transcendentalism/Dark Romanticism.

Basic Premises:

1.       An individual is the spiritual centre of the universe and in an individual can be found the clue to nature, history and, ultimately, the cosmos itself. It is not a rejection of the existence of God, but a preference to explain an individual and the world in terms of an individual.

2.       The structure of the universe literally duplicates the structure of the individual self, all knowledge, therefore, begins with self-knowledge.

3.       Transcendentalists accepted the neo-Platonic conception of nature as a living mystery, full of signs - nature is symbolic.

4.       The belief that individual virtue and happiness depend upon self-realization - this depends upon the reconciliation of two universal psychological tendencies:

a)      the expansive or self-transcending tendency:  a desire to embrace the whole world, to know and become one with the world.

b)      the contracting or self-asserting tendency: the desire to withdraw, remain unique and separate, an egotistical existence.

Major Characteristics

The Transcendentalists never considered themselves belonging to a particular school of thought. Although they agreed implicitly on some principles, they prided themselves on their lack of agreement. Therefore, the following are an inventory of rough concepts shared by many of them:

1. Nature is Akin to God:The Transcendentalists believed that Nature is like a teacher, whose lessons can bring men closer to God. Therefore, pursuant to their views Nature is equal to God.

2. God is Omnipresent: The proponents of Transcendentalism believed that God/Nature/Universe/Over-soul is present in everywhere and in everything. Therefore, they argued that man does not need to observe either a specific religion or visit the churches to find God. They only supported the direct relationship with God since all the established religions are formed by opportunist individuals.

3. Man is divine: The Transcendentalists believed that Nature is divine and as Man is the creature of Nature he is also divine.
                                                                                                                               
4. Intuition: The Transcendentalists argued that as God exists in Man, he has the intuitive power to determine which is right and which is wrong. Man doesn't need any holy books to learn morality.

5. Self-Reliance: The Transcendentalists opined that as Man possesses the natural instincts to guide himself to do the right thing, he must not obey the artificial laws, customs, fashions, or values.

6. Emphasis on the Present: To the Transcendentalists the past is insignificant. They believed that knowledge comes from experience and man doesn’t necessarily acquire it from studying past or from the people who lived before him. Basically, people from the past also attained knowledge through experience, as a result people from present must also depend on experience rather than anybody or any entity from the past.

7. Idealism: Human beings are naturally good at their core. Again, it is society that corrupts them. Human beings left to their own devices are good.

8. Materialism is Evil: According to Transcendental beliefs the pursuit for material goods is worthless and harmful. Money is evil because it causes man to place artificial and false value on objects and people.

9. Optimism:The Transcendentalists emphasized on the essential goodness and purposefulness of life therefore, their outlook on life was vigorously optimistic.

Chief Representatives

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)         

American Philosopher, Journalist, Poet, one of the central leaders of the school of transcendentalism. His Transcendental notes are apparent in Self-Reliance (1841), The American Scholar (1837), Friendship (1841) and Experience.

Henry David Thoreau (1817 –1862)  

American writer, philosopher, and naturalist, considered to be among the best figures of the Transcendentalist movement. He is mostly noted for Walden; or, Life in the Woods (1854) and Civil Disobedience (1849).

Walt Whitman (1819 – 1892)

American poet, essayist and journalist. His best works are Franklin Evans (1842), Leaves of Grass (1855), Drum-Taps (1865), During the War, and Democratic Vistas (1871)

Amos Bronson Alcott (1799-1888)

American writer, philosopher, schoolteacher, the most brilliant and visionary of the Transcendentalists.

Margaret Fuller (1810-1850)

American social reformer, author, and critic. Her works include, Summer on the Lakes(1844), Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845).

Theodore Parker (1810-1860)

An American preacher, lecturer, writer, public intellectual, and religious and social reformer. His brilliant sermon A Discourse of the Transient and Permanent in Christianity (1841) is truly a Transcendentalist manifesto.

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